James Hardie Industries Limited

The facts of the case There are a number of key players in this case. First, we have actuaries, Trowbridge Consulting. This was one of the major Australian actuarial organisation and with extensive experience consulting in cases of asbestos.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on James Hardie Industries Limited specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Trowbridge had served James Hardie Industries Limited (JHIL) for a period of years when it estimated the future costs of asbestos related claims. Actuaries provide professional services to society. This implies that actuaries also have professional responsibilities to the public. However, actuaries still face challenges related to conflict of interest and independence and have serious challenges that should prompt a full debate (Gunz, McCutcheon and Reynolds, 2009). Actuaries’ main duty remains a service to the public. However, their employers are management. Still, th eir duties vary considerably based on a case-by-case basis (Gunz and Laan, 2011). In 1996, Trowbridge estimated that the cost of asbestos related claims would reach $ 250 million. However, following vague terms used in the report and that the company was only obfuscating and failure of JHIL to get listed in the US together with increasing numbers of claimants’ costs, the relationship between Trowbridge and JHIL became strained. Trowbridge report remained a draft and JHIL wanted to use it to convince future insurers. However, Trowbridge insisted that could only happen under an assurance of indemnity.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Second, JHIL case is significant for this report. The company shows how conflict of interest and pressure on professional groups can occur. It also shows how organisations can resort to obfuscating reports for strategic goals due to fin ancial difficulties. Further, it also shows how organisations can comprise vague and rarely actionable professional ethics and codes. JHIL case demonstrate how relying on actuaries that are prone to compromise can destroy the profession. We can also notice the aggressive tactics of the company, and its dependence on actuarial firm that wants to enhance its relationship financially and professional can challenge professional ethical standards. JHIL was the dominant firm in production of asbestos in Australia. JHIL emerged dominant in terms of exploiting asbestos mineral, useful commercial properties of the mineral, and realisation of asbestos serious and harmful health concerns. However, the company ignored such health problems till the removal of asbestos in the market. Most workers lodged claims for compensation due to asbestosis. However, JHIL remained adamant and denied any case of negligence. Third, the public is significant for this case. The company mined and processed asbesto s under questionable circumstances that ignored health and safety concerns of workers.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on James Hardie Industries Limited specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In addition, JHIL used primitive equipment in poorly ventilated environment for its operation. As a result, several workers demanded compensation due to conditions of asbestosis. However, JIHL denied any negligence in its operation. JIHIL hired Trowbridge to provide future costs and estimate for compensation and for potential insurers, and listing in the US. However, the report did not meet the minimum threshold set by the US. According to them, the report was obfuscating, vague, and non-professional without clear representation of necessary details. This report was to serve the interest of the public i.e. asbestosis claimants. Actuaries protect interests of the public whereas auditors protect shareholders’ interests. T he duties of these two bodies can result into conflict of interests. Unlike auditors, actuaries’ duties vary considerably depending on cases. This implies that it is difficult to gauge possible consequences and conflict of interest, though actuaries rely on professional standards. In order to compensate the affected public, JIHL set up the Medical Research and Compensation Foundation (MRCF) to fulfil this role. However, the company ignored Trowbridge claimants’ estimates, and grossly underfunded MRCF with A$ 293 million instead of estimated $ 2.2 billion necessary. Fourth, JILH is in Australia under listed companies. JIHL has been in asbestos business in Australia ever since the discovery of the mineral and realisation of its commercial benefits.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The company has used substandard equipment and poorly ventilated structures that exposed workers to serious health problems. The company also eyed the US market for listing. This required actuarial report. However, the poor quality of the report failed JHIL for listing. Firth, the significant period of this report emerged in Australia when Johns-Manville Corporation invoked Chapter 11 Bankruptcy protection in the US in the year 1982. Such a legal protection lacked in Australia. Consequently, asbestos firms became liable and exposed to legal challenges in relation to asbestos claims during 1980s. This implied that workers could successfully sue companies for compensation based on damages. Sixth, the case of Trowbridge and JHIL is significant in understanding the weak professional codes, ethics and corporate tactics, and possible conflicts of interest related to professional and financial issues. The company had ignored workers’ claims. It had manipulated its actuarial firm, an d continued to use the revised report for insurers. However, Trowbridge insisted that such actions could only take place under an indemnity. These were major causes of conflicts of interest between JHIL and actuary (Minty). In order to settle such claims, the company established MRCF in 2011, a poorly funded body to oversee compensation of the victims. This implied that MRCF was technically bankrupt from inception due to underestimation of value of claims and its long-term liabilities. This was an act of lack of professional conduct and ethics between JHIL and Minty through gross negligence of the victims. Later, MRCF understood the action of the JHIL management and the board. JHIL argued that assessment of asbestos liabilities was adequate at all times. At the same time, the company dismissed MRCF as a different legal entity that it could not control and was not its responsibility. The case of poor funding became an issue in the public domain as it acquired a new dimension. Victims , activities, trade unions, politicians, and media joined hands and pushed the government of the State of New South Wales to form a Commission of Inquiry in 2002. The Jackson Inquiry had to investigate funding issues and knowledge of JHIL board and management on the same. We can notice the role of Minty in the process. The actuarial firm did not take full professional responsibilities for its report and assumed the use of the report. In fact, Minty acted under instructions from JHIL and prepared whatever the company needed. For instance, Minty prepared a report with missing data of several months to serve current purposes. However, Jackson Inquiry revealed the significant of missing data: â€Å"Trowbridge, with knowledge of the Current Data, would have increased its estimated 20 year NPV from $286 million to $373 million, and the total (50 year) NPV from $322 million to $437 million† (Gunz and Laan, 2011). These acts of flawed actuarial advice ruined professional career of Mi nty. How would you describe the ethical behaviour of management towards asbestos victims? JHIL had long known harmful effects of asbestos on its workers. However, the company ignored such health concerns. In addition, the company operated in a primitive manner with regard to its processing and manufacturing plants as there were no ventilation and protection for its workers (Gunz and Laan, 2011). Organisational focus on maximising profits is compelling that firms like JHIL have limited time to understand moral content in their behaviours and decision-making. This suggests that there is a breakdown of organisational conducts and morality, particularly where conflict of interests is a factor. Ethics should convey integrity and value of an organisational service to the public. This shows effective management of an organisation. There are organisations that may commit themselves to Code of Ethics in dealing with workers. Unfortunately, this is not the case in most organisations. Ethical behaviour defines what is morally acceptable in the public domain. The challenge is to identify what is right or wrong at the moment. However, the significant point is that the public expects organisations and management to behaviour according to the highest level of ethical standards. In the case of JHIL, the issue of unethical behaviour has eroded the company’s ethical responsibilities to its workers. This results into ethical crises that also affect other firms such Trowbridge and MCRF that deal with the company. At the same time, it also relates to the plight of victims of asbestos. JHIL is an example of a company that intentionally exposes its workforce to harmful effects of asbestos, adamantly refuses warnings, manipulates actuarial reports for insurers, and sets up a poorly funded organisation to compensate its victims. Some of these practices might be common in most organisations, but they serve to remind us of unethical behaviours and challenges that organisations do not know how to handle. Ethical behaviour seems to have no specific standards. This is because of different environments that organisations conduct their activities. For instance, before the issue of Johns-Manville Corporation of 1982 in the US, Australian workers could not pursue litigation against exposure to asbestos. In the case of JHIL, we can see that the management failed in handling ethical issues that arise as a result of its operation. Still, JHIL management failed to comprehend underlying issues that arise due to ethical practices. What should be the company’s responsibilities in this situation? Organisational culture should promote acceptable, ethical behaviours and eliminate cases of unethical behaviours. We must note that most organisations tend to avoid ethical behaviour due to costs implication. This was the case of JHIL when it manipulated the actuarial firm to provide undervalued reports and further set up a poorly funded MCRF. Consequently, the JHIL manage ment knew it could gain financial advantages from unethical behaviours. However, as the case of JHIL demonstrates unethical behaviours have short-term gains. In the long run, the company did not gain or operate because of its unethical behaviour. Minty, the actuary also ruined his career. The fact is organisations that do not meet expectations of society find it difficult to operate and thrive. Thus, organisations should find ethical behaviours acceptable among the public and promote such cultures. Most scholars have recommended strategies that can enhance ethical behaviours among management (Harrington, 1991; Alder and Bird, 1988). JHIL management should take responsibilities and compensate victims of asbestos exposure. This can only occur through encouraging acceptable, ethical behaviours. We can also notice that there was a lack of formal codes that existed in actuarial professionals. As a result, firms like JHIL can compromise such entities in their favour. JHIL should also enfo rce internal regulations that can guide management in order to act according to code of ethics and standards. Study by Stead, Worrell, and Stead noted that top management of an organisation plays significant role in influencing ethical behaviours of an organisation (Stead, Worrell and Stead, 1990). This is because employees tend to emulate actions of top management. JHIL management lacked the knowledge of ethical behaviour and how it can enhance ethical practices in an organisation. JHIL management ethical behaviour towards victims of asbestos shows a serious lapse of ethical codes and standards in the firm. It is also necessary to note that ethical behaviours lack significance in an organisation if people who make decisions do not practice or implement them. Thus, management support is necessary in reinforcing ethical codes in an organisation. Most employees hold managers in high esteem. As a result, behaviours of such managers have significant impacts on behaviours of their junior s. Managers should reinforce behaviours that they desire. This implies that behaviours of JHIL executives reflect their desired and reinforced behaviour towards asbestos victims. On the other hand, if JHIL management want to enhance and promote ethical behaviours, then its management must accept responsibilities that come with acceptable, ethical behaviours including financial responsibilities. JHIL ignored ethical behaviours in dealing with asbestos victims. Consequently, the company faced legal battles and subsequent commission of inquiry with possibilities of punishments. JHIL management ought to have understood principles of ethical behaviours, and key issues that could have enhanced development of ethical standards in dealing with the asbestos victims. We have noticed that JHIL exploited loopholes in systems regarding reinforcing codes of ethics and standards in Australia. However, management should demonstrate its commitment to best practices by implementing acceptable standar ds in its plants (Cooke, 1991). There is also the principle of organisational dissent. In this context, individuals within an organisation rise against unacceptable ethical behaviours, challenge the status quo and promote acceptable practices. Graham observed that organisations that have a strong commitment to ethical behaviours should embark on principled organisational dissent (Graham, 1986). Organisations that intend to promote ethical behaviours in handling their victims must develop policies and training programs that promote ethical activities within organisational operation and decision-making. Organisations that intend to demonstrate ethical practices must allocate adequate resources to promote ethical behaviours in terms of training, particularly in situations where conflicts of interest influence decision-making. Thus, an organisation should develop strategies of dealing with ethical behaviours and identify all possible facts and consequences of unethical behaviours. Confl ict(s) of interest relating to David Minty and/or Trowbridge (the firm of actuaries) and JHIL â€Å"To ensure the integrity and professional standing of Actuarial Advice, all Actuarial Advice must be impartial† (Institute of Actuaries of Australia, 2007). This is the provision of IAA regarding professional conduct of actuaries. However, Minty failed this standard. JHIL formulated methods of dealing with Minty i.e. the company compromised professional obligation of Minty. This was the case of powerful client dictating actions of a professional body. The report revealed aggressive management tactics and pressure from JHIL in dealing with the actuarial firm. Minty faced conflict of interests in terms of professionally serving the public against serving his powerful and domineering client. This was how pressure and compromise of professional independence occurred. Minty also failed to adhere to professional codes of conduct set by IAA. These were issues of financial, strategies, and obfuscation. In all, Minty failed to act in the best interest of the public, and wrongfully advising his client. How should Trowbridge have dealt with these conflicts? Studies have recommended several ways of handling conflicts of interests. As a result, there are various stages of dealing with conflicts that may compromise professional integrity of advisors. In the case of Minty, most problems occurred due to lack of clear understanding between the actuarial and his client about roles and expectations of both parties. Bloom and Rappaport suggest the importance of an engagement letter with clear contents and how to negotiate with clients (Rappaport and Bloom, 2007). The crucial step in handling conflict of interest involves raising the issue. Mint ought to have raised issues that bothered him with JHIL. This is a process of clearly expressing possible problems. At the same time, Mint must also pay attention to JHIL point of view. As we can see, Minty failed to raise crucial issu es about consequences of their unethical behaviours. Once a party raises an issue and takes a position, it must also identify underlying interests that may result into conflicts. The best method of discovering interests is through inquiries. In the case of Minty, it was professional obligations that conflicted with the demands of Minty. Minty chose to act unethical because of self-interest and ignored professional code of conducts for actuaries. We also have a case of Minty professional responsibility to act in the best interest of the public suffered drawbacks due to demands of JHIL. This unethical push originated from JHIL. JHIL used Minty to falsify reports that the company intended to present to the US for listing, and kept another report as draft for presentation to possible insurers and later to the board of MRCF. This was a case of conflicting loyalty to JHIL. In such cases, Minty should have engaged uncompromised ethical behaviour. Minty failed to understand his responsibili ty of advising and informing JHIL of possible consequences of their actions. As a professional body, Minty failed to act impartially so as to avoid the case of bias in serving the public (Institute and Faculty of Actuaries, 2012). Assessing possible consequences and seriousness of issues remain significant in mitigating conflict of interest. Minty did not account for the public in his decision. In addition, also failed to notice how their decisions would affect stakeholders involved in the process. In most cases, mitigation actions against conflicts of interests and unethical behaviours are difficult to define particularly where the code of conducts are weak or do not exist. In exercising any mitigation approach, Minty could have based his judgment regarding possible consequences of conflicts of interest. The failure to act in order to avert possible conflicts of interest may indicate that Minty regarded those issues as insignificant or indirect. Organisations should not assume that failure to act is enough in handling situations of conflicts of interest. This is because commissions of inquiries usually assess cases of unethical behaviours, and cases that involve professionals who act or make decisions unlawfully or let their professional conduct be compromised. In addition, assessment also reviews how professional reputation may suffer damages. The case of Minty and JHIL is difficult because of both parties had conflicts of interest. In the public view, Minty action of continued involvement in the flawed process where the client influenced his work considerably was wrong. He recognised conflicts of interests, but failed to consider any mitigation action. Professionals who act within professional codes of conduct normally withdraw from situations that lead to conflicts of interest. This is crucial in managing conflicts of interest at an individual level or as professional entity. Professional codes of conducts require that professional actuaries maintain the h ighest level of professional impartial and independence from any possible controls or manipulation from powerful clients. Thus, any professional actuary should act professionally with regard to matters that may subject their actions to scrutiny and call into questions their conducts. This implies that professionals like Minty should adhere to Code of Professional Conduct when providing their services to clients. This code has provisions on how actuaries can handle cases that may result into conflicts of interest. Such provisions account for all manner of conflicts of interest, such as real, potential, or imagined. Such provisions are objective in approaches to help professionals handles such temptations. Thus, professionals are free to raise issues regarding works that may put their conducts at risk. Minty did not meet standards of practicing as professional codes of conduct requires. This is crucial in ensuring the quality of actuary works. However, Minty did not have controls of h is work products. This is contrary to provisions of professional codes of conduct. In order to avoid possible cases that may compromise professional integrity, actuarial professional should take responsibility and ensure that his client does not use his services to mislead a third party. In the case of Minty, JHIL used the report to mislead potential insurers and MCRF. Minty also failed to acknowledge that his report would influence decisions of insurers and MRCF. As a professional, Minty should have recognised risks associated with â€Å"misquotation, misinterpretation, or other misuse of the Actuarial Communication† (Rappaport and Bloom, 2007). Consequently, Minty could have taken reasonable â€Å"steps to present the Actuarial Communication clearly and fairly and to include, as appropriate, limitations on the distribution and utilization of the Actuarial Communication† (Rappaport and Bloom, 2007). Would a code of conduct that was effectively enforced by the professi on make a difference to Minty/Trowbridge behaviour? Organisations have started embracing codes of ethic because various stakeholders want to engage firms that have high levels of ethical standards. Consequently, top management and boards have realised the value of embracing ethical behaviours in their corporate cultures. Studies have established that firms would like to comply with guidelines of regulatory authorities such as IAA and also eliminate exposure to criminal behaviours and liabilities (Paine et al, 2005). These are enough motivation for engaging in ethical behaviours and relying on codes of ethics. It is difficult to measure the impact of codes of ethics on â€Å"firms’ performance as scholars view it as measuring the immeasurable† (Tyler, 2005). However, there are indications that codes of conduct together with education enhance employees’ morale and job satisfaction and improve business relationships with partners (Myers, 2003). Most organisations b elieve that engaging in ethical behaviours have it rewards. However, they have also expressed roles of effective codes of conduct that reinforce ethical culture in an organisation. According to George Donnelly, there is a strong link between effective corporate code of ethics, compliance, and success in business practices (Donnelly, 2005). In the field of actuaries, researchers have not established impacts of enforcement of codes of conduct on professional performance. However, in noteworthy cases, effects of codes of conduct have improved business images and employees performance. For instance, Johnson and Johnson suffered a reputational crisis of Tylenol in 1980s. The company used credo to help built its reputation after the crisis. On the other hand, Lockheed Martin uses ethics programmes for changing its employees’ behaviour and attitude (LRN, 2006). Employees consider codes of conduct meaningful and inspiring. The use of codes of conduct is becoming the norm of corporate cultures. This is because employees rely on provisions of codes in order to understand expected behaviours. They also believe that codes of conduct promote integrity and ethics in the work environment (LRN, 2006). LRN survey results suggest how codes of conduct in various organisations have influence on employees’ behaviours and practices. The Ethics Resource Centre (ERC) data on national ethics study revealed that organisations that have enforceable codes of conduct have marked changes on employees’ behaviours and culture. Organisations that have codes of conduct have expressed top management commitment to ethical behaviours through communication and acts of ethical conduct. In addition, employees have also taken into account codes of conduct when making decisions and also rely on codes of conduct while dealing with external stakeholders. Culture of an organisation is the key factor that should drive effective codes of conduct in organisation. Employees need formal a nd enforceable ethics and compliance procedures in order to embrace and develop strong ethical cultures. It is necessary to highlight that how organisations enforce their codes of conduct have general impacts on how employees value such provisions. Consequently, most organisations have realised the importance of written codes of conduct together with training, and encouragement to consult when in doubt. In the case of Minty, there was a lack of enforceable codes of conduct. Thus, the Commission of Inquiry realised the difficult associated with the code enforcement. Codes of conduct cannot be useful to organisations if they cannot use them to enforce ethical behaviours and shape their future ethical culture (Financial Services Authority, 2002). As a result, most firms have found it necessary to engage constant training, education, and communication of relevance of codes of conduct to employees. These are methods such organisations use for engaging their employees. LRN has established that such codes work in organisations for promoting ethical behaviours. Organisations are different and so are their cultures and risks associated with unethical behaviours. We can only ascertain the relevance of a code of conduct and its success if it can show positive outcomes on its intended objectives. Gunz and Laan have demonstrated how actuaries’ roles differ from those of auditors. This implies that different codes of conduct apply to these groups. Still, we have also noticed that litigation and tort laws are strong in countries like the US than in Australia. Thus, we must look at the effectiveness of codes in their relevant contexts and environments. According to Gary Cramer, most organisations consider codes of conduct as necessary in promoting their images (Cramer, 1996). However, Cramer notes the importance of reminder as a tool in reinforcing a code of conduct in an organisation. In addition, he also highlights the importance of training across all levels of an o rganisation and implementing reward systems for employees that adhere to the code. There is a belief that codes of conduct can only be relevant when they are a part of performance reviews. In this regard, codes must have punishment for any deviation in order to enhance their usefulness. Cramer warns that a code of conduct alone cannot be panacea for unethical behaviours in an organisation. Thus, some organisations may not see the relevance of such codes regarding their ethics problems. The increasing numbers of Commission of Inquiries and law suits against organisations that neglect their workforce are indications of public pressure on organisations to eliminate unethical practices, and embrace enforceable codes of conducts that employees cannot ignore. Trowbridge failed to enforce actuaries’ professional code of conduct and acceptable business ethics so as to ensure progressive growth and a positive, professional image to the public. Successful organisations have realised th e value of reinforcing codes of conduct combined with disciplinary measures. In cases of disciplinary actions, organisations must ensure that they apply to all employees involved equally. This may include perpetrators, supervisors, and those who condone and withhold information. Therefore, we can notice that enforcing a code of conduct in a firm is a responsibility of all stakeholders. This aims at sustaining and promoting an acceptable corporate image. Thus, for fairness implementation, all stakeholders should work as a team in order to ensure that organisation services meet both clients and public expectations within the code. Reference List Alder, HJ and Bird, FB 1988, International Dimension of Executive Integrity: Who is Responsible for the World, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Cooke, R 1991, ‘Danger Signs of Unethical Behavior: How to Determine If Your Firm Is at Ethical Risk’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 10, pp. 249-253. Cramer, G 1996, ‘Reinforcing ethic s code is key to corporate implementation’, Public Information, vol. 25, no. 37, p. 1. Donnelly, G 2005, ‘Beyond the Code: Benchmarking Ethics, Compliance Programs’, Compliance Week, vol. 14, pp. 2-3. Financial Services Authority 2002, Future role of actuaries in the governance of life insurers, FSA, London. Graham, J 1986, ‘Principled Organizational Dissent: A Theoretical Essay’, Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 8, pp. 1-8. Gunz, S and Laan, S 2011, ‘Actuaries, Conflicts of Interest and Professional Independence: The Case of James Hardie Industries Limited’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 98, pp. 583–596. Gunz, S, McCutcheon, J and Reynolds, F 2009, ‘Independence, Conflict of Interest and the Actuarial Profession’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 77- 89. Harrington, S 1991, ‘What Corporate America is Teaching About Ethics’, Academy of Management Executive, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 21 -30. Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2012, Conflicts of interest and actuaries: A note for pension scheme trustees, IFA, Edinburgh. Institute of Actuaries of Australia 2007, Code of Professional Conduct, Institute of Actuaries of Australia, Sydney. LRN 2006, The impact of codes of conduct on corporate culture, LRN, Los Angeles. Myers, R 2003, ‘Ensuring Ethical Effectiveness’, Journal of Accountancy, vol. 2, pp. 3-5. Paine, L, Deshpande, R, Margolis, J, and Bettcher, K. 2005. ‘Up to Code: Does Your Company’s Conduct Meet World-Class Standards?’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 12, pp. 1-5. Rappaport, A and Bloom, L 2007, ‘Engagement Letters to Help Run Your Practice Well’, The Independent Consultant: Society of Actuaries, vol. 1, pp. 1-5. Stead, WE, Worrell, DL and Stead, JG 1990, ‘An Integrative Model for Understanding and Managing Ethical Behavior in Business Organizations’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 9, pp. 233-234. Tyler, K 2005, ‘Do the Right Thing: Ethics Education Programs Help Employees Deal with Ethical Dilemmas’, HR Magazine, vol.50, no. 2, pp. 1-3. This case study on James Hardie Industries Limited was written and submitted by user Cody D. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Martin Luther to the German Nobility †Theology Essay

Martin Luther to the German Nobility – Theology Essay Free Online Research Papers Martin Luther to the German Nobility Theology Essay Power. Throughout the extensive tale of human history, there have been few factors that have influenced the construction and rise of civilized and happy nations, and even fewer that have enticed the destruction and tyrannical corruption of peoples than has the possession of power. The word itself is vague at best, a term we use with such indiscriminate promiscuity that its very definition is scattered across the realms of religion, politics, law, philosophy, and all the natural and physical sciences. Ethically, the concept is innocent and splendidly neutral- to make a moral judgment requires not the condemnation or endorsement of power itself, but of its wielder. Power can make a man (or a god) a momentous influence for the righteousness and happiness of those over whom he has power; it can also spawn an influential corruption that can degenerate even the greatest of heroes. Martin Luther, in his treatise, â€Å"To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation,† fueled by his love of the Gospel as taught by Christ and armed with a relentless determination to inspire the Catholic Church and its power-wielding leaders of his day to turn from corruption to the true pursuit of the Lord’s teachings, seeks to appeal to the political leaders of the German ic people in order to convince them of their rights as independent Christians and their ability to influence change in the Church. Despite the eventual creation of the â€Å"Lutheran† Church and the vast amount of other sects inspired by the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther does not write his treatise with an attitude of breaking off the Catholic Church. The whole work rather is written with the ardor and aim of a medical doctor; it is an attempt at a repair rather than any sort of amputation preceded by simple condemnation. But why would an attempt at renovation of the clergy be directed at the political ruling body? Luther explains his apparent misdirection in the opening of his epistle: â€Å"I am carrying out our intention to put together a few points on the matter of the reform of the Christian estate, to be laid before the Christian nobility of the German nation, in the hope that God may help his church through the laity, since the clergy, to whom this task more properly belongs, have grown quite indifferent† (7, italics added). The point then, is that the clergy are quite comfortable in their follies and not interested in their own reform; Luther is thus appealing to the political powers to assist in bringing about his improvements. There is a problem with this, however. The root of corruption, according to Luther, is the church in Rome- the pope and his clergy- and its members have declared themselves both infallible and possessing final authority over any political entity. Thus, if laity were to attempt any reform, Rome quickly responds by declaring that laity are not priests and thus have no authority for any such alteration. If the laity tries to prove their case by the scriptures, Rome replies that only they can interpret the scriptures. It is a logically impossible circular argument, a variation on the classic â€Å"infallible authoritarian† argument: â€Å"Rule 1- Rome is always right. Rule 2- If Rome is wrong, see Rule 1.† In reaction to this claim to supreme authority, Luther has two basic responses. First, he makes the argument that his audience, the temporal political nobles of Germany, if they be just Christians, are priests with the same authority as any of the clergymen. It is a fallacy that the clergymen of Rome belong exclusively to the â€Å"spiritual estate† and that anyone who is not a member of the clergy is only a part of the â€Å"temporal estate.† In other words, anyone who is a Christian is a priest with the same authority as any man wearing the clerical robes; being Christian is synonymous with being part of the â€Å"spiritual estate.† The difference then, is not one of power or authority, but of office and responsibility. Essentially, Luther is giving the men to whom he writes justification to effect reform in the Church- he is telling them that they have the authority, just like any member of the laity, to have a say in clerical and religious matters. Scripturally and historically, they have the power to take action such as to elect and app oint bishops and monks, just as the laity of Hippo appointed St. Augustine. Second, he makes a sharp division of labor between politics and religion. He says, â€Å"The pope is not a vicar of Christ in heaven, but only of Christ as he walked the earth† (54). The image of Christ in heaven, then, is a king- with a throne, ruling majestically on high- omniscient and possessing all power. The King of Heaven and of Earth is certainly a political station. However, Christ needs a man like St. Peter, who will represent Him how He was on the Earth. Jesus certainly held no political power when He walked the streets of Jerusalem- neither did Peter or the other apostles. Their responsibility was to serve the children of God; they were to care for the poor, sick, and needy in both body and spirit. In other words, they were to carry on the work of Christ. Martin Luther clearly declares that a true representative of Christ cannot effectively hold any political power. For, indeed, how can a man pay full attention to the body of the Church, and at the same time rule a n political entity such as a city- much less an empire? The distinction then is clear. We need political officers, and we need church leaders, but in order to do their jobs effectively, they cannot be the same person or group of people, and neither can claim authority over the other in the other’s realm, e.g., the clergy cannot claim the right to control or suppress a king’s acquisition of territory. It is clear throughout the treatise that Luther writes from the most sincere position- he wants to effect changes for the good of God and his fellow men- not to secure power or position for himself or his friends. He constantly quotes scripture and uses precedents and examples from Christ’s own life and the lives of the apostles to make his justifications for reform. Although he could not have possibly realized the scope of the division his movement would create in Christianity, his efforts are certainly exceptional enough to bestow upon him the title of Father of the Reformation. 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Overview of the Economics of Demand

Overview of the Economics of Demand When people think about what it means to demand something, they usually envision some sort of but I want it sort of scenario.  Economists, on the other hand, have a very precise definition of demand. For them demand is the relationship between the quantity of a good or service consumers will purchase and the price charged for that good. More precisely and formally the Economics Glossary defines demand as the want or desire to possess a good or service with the necessary goods, services, or financial instruments necessary to make a legal transaction for those goods or services.  Put another way, an individual must is willing, able, and ready to purchase an item if they are to be counted as demanding an item. What Demand Is Not Demand is not simply a quantity consumers wish to purchase such as 5 oranges or 17 shares of Microsoft, because demand represents the entire relationship between quantity desired of a good and all possible prices charged for that good. The specific quantity desired for a good at a given price is known as the quantity demanded. Typically a time period is also given when describing quantity demanded, since obviously the quantity demanded of an item would differ based on whether we were talking about per day, per week, and so on. Examples of Quantity Demanded When the price of an orange is 65 cents the quantity demanded is 300 oranges a week. If the local Starbucks lowers their price of a tall coffee from $1.75 to $1.65, the quantity demanded will rise from 45 coffees an hour to 48 coffees an hour. Demand Schedules A demand schedule is a table which lists the possible prices for a good and service and the associated quantity demanded. The demand schedule for oranges could look (in part) as follows: 75 cents - 270 oranges a week70 cents - 300 oranges a week65 cents - 320 oranges a week60 cents - 400 oranges a week Demand Curves A demand curve is simply a demand schedule presented in graphical form. The standard presentation of a demand curve has price given on the Y-axis and quantity demanded on the X-axis.  You can see a basic example of a demand curve in the picture presented with this article. The Law of Demand The law of demand states that, ceteribus paribus (Latin for assuming all else is held constant), the quantity demanded for a good rises as the price falls. In other words, the quantity demanded and price are inversely related. Demand curves are drawn as downward sloping due to this inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. Price Elasticity of Demand The price elasticity of demand represents how sensitive quantity demanded is to changes in price.

Article analyse Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Article analyse - Assignment Example other choice but to acquire its service at that expensive charge (Alderighi, Nicolini and Piga 73).Commercial air travel has received many changes over the past hundred years with it budget much stretched. With much completion starting to take charge, the commercial airlines were forced to reduce their fair cost to attract more customers. The slow global economic growth also ensured economic growth of air travel in the emerging regions where less air travel increased substantially (Alderighi, Nicolini and Piga 86). Besides, the commercial air travel took advantage of increased cost of fuel to increase its market structure. The domestic airplanes could not afford travelling long distances. Therefore, the commercial air travel was able to receive more customers to acquire it services. This situation reduced the completion it was earlier receiving from other airlines. International air travel indicates that mature airlines in the market of Europe experienced slower growth rate. The frontier airline, has now posed new challenges to commercial air travel in many areas. This has resulted to reduced economic growth of airlines. The frontier airlines now has reduced the cost of travelling, making several flights to various cities as compared to the air travel (Alderighi, Nicolini and Piga 45). In overall, the frontier has provided better services making company to receive more customers than any other airlines. This improvement has caused a lot of concern to business community about the effects of delta years of high cost and long flights in order to ensure they are not outdone. The market entry for competition and further innovation is important and largely undisputed in any industrial organization. Many factor s influence general pricing and passenger traffic in air transport industry (Peng, 67). The most popular determinant is low cost airline. It has been reported that low cost line has significant resulted to depression of prices associated with increase of

Musclar Sclerosis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Musclar Sclerosis - Research Paper Example According to the National Multiple Sclerosis Society of the United States of America, there are 250,000 people in the country who suffer from this disease. Furthermore, it points out that the total number of people with this condition may be the double of this figure owing to the fact that many people do not chose to consult their physicians and misdiagnose their own condition (Rosner et al 2008 p7). The disease is considered to have a greater predisposition towards females and the ratio of the affected females to affected males is 2:1. The disease does not present in the early ages of life and nor are there any presenting cases after the fifth decade of life. Individuals are mainly affected between these age groups (Robbins et al 2005 p 1382; Mitchell et al 2007 p 887). Multiple sclerosis is not a congenital disease and it is a condition which affects a person later in life and is acquired. It is considered to be caused by an autoimmune mechanism. But definitive causes for this dise ase have still not been identified. It has been highlighted that the condition may also be stimulated and caused by external environmental factors. The condition is not infective and hence does not spread from one individual to another. Studies in the United States and England have highlighted interesting aspects of the disease and it has been seen that this pathological condition mainly affects the upper classes and it is more common in countries with proper hygienic measures. It has been seen that in the developing nations where the hygiene is low, the disease is not prevalent and it is hypothesized that these populations tend to acquire an immune mechanism against this disease. Furthermore, it has also been presented that the pathology is more prevalent in areas with lower temperatures (Robbins et al 2005 p 1382; Rosner et al 2008 p 8; Ganong 2005 p51). The disease has been suggested to be an autoimmune response of the body against the myelin sheath. This reaction of the body is considered to have a genetic link as well. This has been highlighted due to the fact that there is 15 times increased vulnerability of developing the condition if â€Å"first degree relatives† suffer from the disease. If one twin suffers from the disease, the other twin also has a high susceptibility of developing the condition (Robbins et al 2005). Multiple sclerosis follows a clinical course where attacks of the symptoms appear between intervals of weeks or months or years. These symptoms may even subside for extended periods of time and the patient retains normal functioning but they have a tendency to recur as well. With increasing time, the symptoms tend to subside but there may be long lasting damage to neurological function (Robbins et al 2005 p 1382). The disease presents with many symptoms which include optic neuritis and retrobulbar neuritis. The patient may complain of visual disturbances. The involvement of the brainstem tends to result in ataxia, nystagmus and in ternuclear opthalmoplegia. The spinal cord is also involved and the demyelination of the nerve fibers in the spinal cord results in problems of the motor and sensory conduction in the arms and the legs. The functioning of the urinary bladder is also affected and it loses its normal working. The patient may also present with an injury of the spinal cord which would not be painful. The patient may

Labelling Theory And Criminal Behavior In Society Criminology Essay

Labelling Theory And Criminal Behavior In Society Criminology Essay Labelling theory is very useful in explaining criminal behaviour. Labelling theory is one of the theories which explain the causes of deviant and criminal behaviour in society. It gives an insight on what could make an individual be attracted to criminal behavior as opposed to morally desirable behavior. This is very important for criminologists, law enforcement bodies and health care professionals who try to rehabilitate criminals. This paper will discuss the labeling theory with respect to crime. Various theorists who discuss this theory will be studied in order to better understand criminal behaviour. A summary of issues discussed will also be given at the end. This theory was advanced by Becker and it explains the causes of criminal and deviant behaviour in society.  [1]  This theory emphasizes that criminal behaviour occurs as a result of the dominant social group labelling minority groups who are viewed to be committing acts which are against social norms. The theory discusses how the behaviour and self identity of an individual can be influenced or determined by different terms which the dominant population uses to classify or describe them. According to this theory, when the society gives negative connotations to an individual, this influences the individual to adopt the labels which are attached to them. When the society labels a person as deviant, such people internalise the negative label and after time, they adopt the nature of a deviant person so as to conform to societys expectations. Every person knows how other people judge them through previous interactions with other members of society. The self can be said to be moulded according to this perception by society. When the society changes the perception which it has on an individual and sees them to be deviant, an individual may re-evaluate their self depending on the authority of other peoples judgement. The society or dominant group has the power to decide what constitutes deviance. This group defines deviance and explains the levels which can be tolerated by society.  [2]  When this group labels someone as deviant, they may change their treatment of the individual. This change usually depends on the extent of deviance exhibited by the individual. The change in treatment of the individual affects their self image. The higher the change, the higher their image is affected. In some cases, especially when the self image is greatly affected, the individual changes their nature to conform to the labels which are given to them. Becker identifies two groups in society; rule makers and rule breakers. Rule makers and breakers are seen to be two different groups which are in state of contrast. The rule breakers perceive themselves to be in contrast with rule makers as far as moral values are concerned. Rule breakers therefore detach themselves from society and become outsiders. However, there is a bond which exists within rule breakers, and they may perceive themselves to be the mainstream society and the rest of society to be outsiders. It is important to note that Becker did not support any deviance theories which were advanced as explanations for causes of crime. Various theories such as differential association, strain theory, control theory and others attempt to explain the causes of crime. However, Becker was opposed to these theories since he was of the opinion that deviance does not exist. The dominant social group was seen by Becker as imposing their view of deviance, and accepting deviance would be accepting the views shared by this majority. Primary and secondary deviance Becker explains that there are two levels of deviance; primary and secondary deviance. Primary deviance is the initial level of deviance which is committed by a person. This deviance may either be unintentional or intentional.  [3]  Many people fantasize or think of committing deviant actions and this may trigger the commission of deviance. Secondary deviance is the deviance which is committed after the labelling by society. The labels which societies give to a person trigger secondary deviance. There are various steps in which secondary deviance is achieved. The first step is being seen committing a deviance act and being labelled a deviant by society. Accepting the deviant label is the second step towards achieving secondary deviance. Some people may accept the deviant label and begin committing deviant acts as opposed to their normal way of life. The third stage is commission of acts which are consistent with those of a deviant. This occurs after a rule breaker has accepted th e deviant tag and they begin practicing a culture which is consistent with that of deviants. Beckers case study Becker carried out a case study in which he attempted to find out how marijuana came to be associated with deviants in the United States. During the late 1930s, the Bureau of Narcotics began campaigns against marijuana use in the US. Since the bureau was new, it began these campaigns as a way of justifying its existence. The ethnic Protestants were the prevailing religion during this time and they despised actions taken purely for achieving ecstasy. The Protestant group can be said to be the dominant group as discussed earlier. This group preached of the need to free people from the bondage of drugs. The bureau then began explaining the adverse effects of drugs, including showing the public evidence from Mexico, which had one of the highest rates of drug abuse in the world. As a result, legislation was passed to discourage the vice. However, in spite of the legislation, the abuse of marijuana has continued. This can be explained by the labelling theory. The dominant group, the Protes tant, branded people who use marijuana deviants. Many of them accepted the tag and continued abusing the drug since this was perceived to be the expectation of the society which branded them a deviant. Another case, which was observed by Thomas Scheff relates to people with mental illnesses. Most people who the society brands as mentally unstable usually begin acting according to how the media portrays the mentally ill.  [4]  Once they do so, they have access to professionals in mental illnesses. Most people act like the mentally unstable to at a point in life. However, not all are branded mentally unstable and only those who society perceives as weak are. This is consistent with the labelling theory in which the dominant group labels the minority group. Erving Goffman and labelling Goffman explains the concept of labelling through the use of social stigma. Stigma is behaviour, reputation or attribute which discredits a person or group. Goffman describes it as the difference between actual and virtual social identity.  [5]  Goffman explains that people often make certain assumptions based on interaction with other people. These assumptions often translate to expectations and people are expected to behave in certain ways based on these assumptions. These expectations gradually become demands and everyone demands that certain people act in a certain way based on the initial assumptions. When we begin analysing whether out expectations will be met we realise that all along we had been making assumptions. There are six levels of stigma which were associated with Goffman. The first is concealment and this is the ability of one to hide stigma.  [6]  The second is disruptiveness and this is the ability of stigma to affect social relations. Aesthetics is the reaction by other people to stigma. Origin relates to the beginning of stigma and can either be deliberate, accidental or by birth. Course is the fifth aspect and it relates to the progression of stigma over time. The sixth aspect is peril and this is the ability of stigma to pose as a danger to other people. Goffmans contributions to the theory of labelling are important. They explain what may make the dominant social group label the minority group. This also explains why the minority group may be under pressure to change their normal way of life and adapt to the labels which have been given to them. In order to reverse the adverse effects of labelling, stigma should be eliminated through avoiding assumptions about people. People should judge others through long term interaction rather than short term or casual interaction. Importance of labelling theory in understanding crime Labelling theory has been seen to alter the normal actions performed by actors who the society has branded or labelled. The labelling makes them alter their actions and adopt those which are consistent with the labels which are attached to them. This is important in understanding crime since criminal behavior can be explained by this theory. When a person commits a criminal act, this is primary deviance and it may be unintentional or intentional. However, when the society brands that person a criminal, this may alter his or her self and they may start committing criminal activities. This is secondary deviance since it is influenced by the label which the society has given the person. Gradually, such people form groups in which they seek identity. They perceive the law abiding citizens to be a threat to their existence and they target them in their criminal activities. In order to reverse the criminal behavior and reduce crime, the society should avoid giving negative connotations to people, and see criminal behaviour as a mistake which can be rectified through rehabilitation. The society should understand the adverse effects of giving labels to people, since instead of being a deterrent to crime, it becomes a catalyst to crime. Labelling theory, amongst other theories serves to inform the public, law makers, law enforcers and health practitioners of the ineffectiveness of labelling minority groups. Criticism of labelling theory One of the criticisms of the theory is that it is impractical. Empirical tests have not been tested on the population and it therefore cannot be taken to be accurate. It is difficult to test and many sociologists do not perceive it to be a true theory. Another weakness of this theory is that it does not explain primary deviance.  [7]  This theory only explains secondary deviance but does not explain what motivates one to commit primary deviance. It is therefore perceived to be inconclusive. Further research should be done on the labelling theory in order to determine whether it is accurate and applicable to the society today. Summary and conclusion Different aspects of the labelling theory have been discussed. Labelling has been seen to facilitate crime and deviant behaviour through encouraging people to act according to labels which are attached to them. Initially criminal activities may be unintentional or intentional depending on the actor, and this is the primary stage of deviance. However, subsequent crimes may be committed as a result of labelling and this is the secondary stage of deviance. In order to reduce crime we should reduce the negative connotations which are given to people, especially criminals. The society should take crime as a mistake committed by a person, which should be reversed through rehabilitation, rather than admitting that crime is the nature of the person. Goffman has also been seen to discuss stigma, and this is important in explaining the labelling theory. Due to the assumptions discussed by Goffman, criminals are stigmatised and this encourages them to commit criminal acts according to labels designated to them. However, the research done on labelling theory is inconclusive due to the weaknesses which have been discussed. The absence of practical tests and inability to explain primary deviance shows that more research is needed on the topic. This will prove whether labelling theory is applicable to the modern society. This paper is useful to sociology students, law makers, health care practitioners, law enforcers and the general public since it enables all these groups understand the nature of crime.

Excessive Talking Essay

I am being disciplined for talking in class without the teacher’s permission. I must realize that when too many people are talking at once, it is hard to hear and understand anyone at all. That is one reason why my teacher wants only one person to talk at a time. A second reason is that most people find it difficult to think about what they are trying to say if someone else is talking at the same time they are. A third reason I should not talk in class without first being given permission is that most people find it hard to concentrate on their schoolwork when others around them are talking. There are times to listen and think and work quietly. It is at these times that I should not talk without being given permission first. Additionally, by paying attention to, and doing, my schoolwork instead of talking without permission, I will probably get better grades. When I talk in class, I bother everyone around me. I also bother my teacher. By talking in class I keep myself and others from learning. I also show others that I have not learned how to follow directions or how to control myself. Some students might find it hard to be friends with me if I cannot follow directions or control myself, because they could get in trouble too, by talking back to me during class. In fact, if they get caught and I don’t, they will probably be angry at me because I started talking first! I should work very hard to not talk during class unless I get permission first. A step to learning how to stop talking is to know why I do it, and what problems it causes others. Then I need to make a plan for improving my behavior, like making a promise to the teacher (and myself) at the beginning of each class. Or, I could make a card to put on my desk during class that reads something like: â€Å"Get permission to talk.†